JURASSIC WORLD

JURASSIC WORLD

The Jurassic was a geologic period and system  that spanned 56 million years from the end of the Triassic Period 201.3 million years ago. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, also known as the Age of Reptiles. The start of the period was marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. Two other extinction events occurred during the period: the Pliensbachian/Toarcian event in the Early Jurassic, and the Tithonian  event at the end; however, neither event ranks among the "Big Five" mass extinctions.

The Jurassic period is divided into three epochs: Early, Middle, and Late. Similarly, in stratigraphy, the Jurassic is divided into the Lower Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Upper Jurassic series of rock formations.

The Jurassic is named after the Jura Mountains within the European Alps, where limestone strata from the period were first identified. By the beginning of the Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses: Laurasia to the north, and Gondwana to the south. This created more coastlines and shifted the continental climate from dry to humid, and many of the arid deserts of the Triassic were replaced by lush rainforests.

On land, the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna, dominated by both dinosauromorph and crocodylomorph archosaurs, to one dominated by dinosaurs  alone. The first birds also appeared during the Jurassic, having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs. Other major events include the appearance of the earliest lizards, and the evolution of therian mammals, including primitive placentals. Crocodilians made the transition from a terrestrial to an aquatic mode of life. The oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, while pterosaurs were the dominant flying vertebrates.

DINOSAURS

Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic, morphological and ecological  standpoints. Birds, at over 10,000 living species, are the most diverse group of vertebrates besides perciform fish. Using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species (birds) and fossil remains. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold-blooded. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous. Evidence suggests that egg-laying and nest-building are additional traits shared by all dinosaurs, avian and non-avian alike.

While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal  species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines. While the dinosaurs' modern-day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs (non-avian and avian) were large-bodied—the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of 39.7 meters (130 feet) and heights of 18 meters (59 feet) and were the largest land animals of all time. Still, the idea that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception based in part on preservation bias, as large, sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized. Many dinosaurs were quite small: Xixianykus, for example, was only about 50 cm (20 in) long.

Since the first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums around the world, and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of world culture. The large sizes of some dinosaur groups, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured dinosaurs' regular appearance in best-selling books and films, such as Jurassic Park. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media.


TYPE OF DINOSAUR

●Theropods
    * Coelurosaurs
    * Maniraptora

●Dromaeosauridae (Raptors)
    * Velociraptor
    * Microraptor

●Abelisauridae
    *Carnotaurus
    *Abelisaurus

●Tyrannosauridae
    * Tyrannosaurus
    * Albertosaurus
    * Gorgosaurus
    * Tarbosaurus

●Spinosauridae
    * Spinosaurus
    * Baryonyx
    * Suchomimus
    * Irritator

●Allosauridae
    * Allosaurus
    * Saurophaganax

●Carcharodontosauridae
    * Giganotosaurus
    * Carcharodontosaurus
    * Tyrannotitan

●Diplodocidae
    * Diplodocus
    * Apatosaurus
    * Brontosaurus
    * Supersaurus

●Titanosauria
    * Saltasaurus
    * Argentinosaurus

●Ankylosauria
    * Ankylosaurus
    * Minmi
    * Polacanthus
    * Edmontonia

●Stegosauria
    * Stegosaurus
    * Hesperosaurus
    * Wuerhosaurus
    * Kentrosaurus

●Hadrosauridae
    * Hadrosaurus
    * Edmontosaurus
    * Parasaurolophus
    *Lambeosaurus

●Pachycephalosauria
    * Pachycephalosaurus
    * Stegoceras
                                       
●Ceratopsia
    * Centrosaurus
    * Psittacosaurus
    * Triceratops

CROCODILE

CROCODILE

* Crocodiles or true crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia.

* Crocodylinae, all of whose members are considered true crocodiles, is classified as a biological subfamily.

* A broader sense of the term crocodile, Crocodylidae that includes Tomistoma, is not used in this article. The term crocodile here applies to only the species within the subfamily of Crocodylinae.

* The term is sometimes used even more loosely to include all extant members of the order Crocodilia, which includes the alligators  and caimans, the gharial and false gharial and all other living and fossil Crocodylomorpha.

* Although they appear similar, crocodiles, alligators and the gharial belong to separate biological families. The gharial, with its narrow snout, is easier to distinguish, while morphological differences are more difficult to spot in crocodiles and alligators.

* The most obvious external differences are visible in the head, with crocodiles having narrower and longer heads, with a more V-shaped than a U-shaped snout compared to alligators and caimans.

* Another obvious trait is that the upper and lower jaws of the crocodiles are the same width, and the teeth in the lower jaw fall along the edge or outside the upper jaw when the mouth is closed; therefore, all teeth are visible, unlike an alligator, which possesses in the upper jaw small depressions into which the lower teeth fit.

* Also, when the crocodile's mouth is closed, the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw fits into a constriction in the upper jaw. For hard-to-distinguish specimens, the protruding tooth is the most reliable feature to define the species' family.

* Crocodiles have more webbing on the toes of the hind feet and can better tolerate saltwater due to specialized salt glands for filtering out salt, which are present, but non-functioning, in alligators. Another trait that separates crocodiles from other crocodilians is their much higher levels of aggression.

EYE

EYE

* Human eye, in humans, specialized sense organ capable of receiving visual images, which are then carried to the brain.

* Human eyes help to provide a three dimensional, moving image, normally coloured in daylight.

* Rod and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color differentiation and the perception of depth.

* The human eye can differentiate between about 10 million colors.

WHAT YOU MEAN BY VACCINATION

VACCINATION

* Vaccination is the administration of antigenic  material  to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen.

* Vaccines  can prevent or ameliorate infectious disease. When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, herd immunity results. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified.

* Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.

* Stimulating immune responses with an infectious agent is known as immunization.

* Vaccination includes various ways of administering immunogens.

* Some vaccines are administered after the patient already has contracted a disease.

* Vaccines given after exposure to smallpox, within the first three days, are reported to attenuate the disease considerably, and vaccination up to a week after exposure probably offers some protection from disease or may reduce the severity of disease.

* The first rabies immunization was given by Louis Pasteur to a child after he was bitten by a rabid dog. Since then, it has been found that, in people with healthy immune systems, four doses of rabies vaccine over 14 days, wound care, and treatment of the bite with rabies immune globulin, commenced as soon as possible after exposure, is effective in preventing rabies in humans.

DINGO

DINGO

Photo :- google

BEHAVIOUR AND DIET

* These golden or reddish-colored canids may live alone (especially young males) or in packs of up to ten animals.

* They roam great distances and communicate with wolf-like howls.
Dingo hunting is opportunistic.

* Animals hunt alone or in cooperative packs. They pursue small game such as rabbits, rodents, birds, and lizards.

* These dogs will eat fruits and plants as well. They also scavenge from humans, particularly in their Asian range.

* Dingoes breed only once a year. Females typically give birth to about five pups, which are not independent until six to eight months of age. In packs, a dominant breeding female will kill the offspring of other females.

* Australia is home to so many of these animals that they are generally considered pests.

* A famous “dingo fence” has been erected to protect grazing lands for the continent's herds of sheep.

* It is likely that more dingoes live in Australia today than when Europeans first arrived.

* Though dingoes are numerous, their pure genetic strain is gradually being compromised.

* They can and do interbreed with domestic dogs to produce hybrid animals. Studies suggest that more than a third of southeastern Australia's dingoes are hybrids.

SOME FACTS ABOUT SINGO

●THE DINGO IS NOT A DOG BREED.

Technically, dingoes are not a breed of dog. They're only semi-domesticated and are just as much wolf as they are dog. So far, it's unclear if Canis lupus dingo was ever fully domesticated. Some evidence suggests that they may once have been pets, but were abandoned and left to revert to their wild state. It's believed that travelers from Indonesia or Southeast Asia  dropped the once-domesticated dogs in Australia roughly 4000 years ago. The dogs, left to their own devices, thrived by falling back on the wolfish instincts of their ancestors. While some dingoes would travel and eat with Aboriginal tribes on the Australian continent, they were wary companions and certainly not pets.


● THEY'RE CONSIDERED PESTS.

Left to fend for themselves, dingoes became the largest predator in Australia and enjoyed a wide variety of prey to gobble down. It wasn't until the English came to the country with their sheep that the dingo ran into some trouble. Dingoes feasted on the newcomers' livestock until the farmers were at their wit's end. While most dogs are considered man's best friend, dingoes are decidedly an enemy of the Australian farmer. Some sheep owners today have resorted to "guard donkeys" to protect their stock. The hoofed animals are low maintenance and scare away dingoes and foxes with their powerful kicks.


● THE LARGEST FENCE IN THE WORLD WAS BUILT TO KEEP OUT DINGOES.

Australians desperate to keep their flocks safe resorted to building a fence in southeastern Australia to keep the dingoes out. The impressive fence is one of the longest structures in the world  and is generally considered the longest fence. The original incarnation was a collection of small fences built in the 1880s to prevent the spread of rabbit plague, but they quickly fell into disrepair. In the early 1900s, they were repaired and converted into dingo fences. The various structures were connected in the 1940s to create one giant, continuous fence. It once stretched 8614 kilometers (5352.5 miles) long, but has since been shortened to 5614 kilometers (3488.4 miles). It costs 10 million Australian dollars a year in upkeep, but is considered mostly a success at keeping the predators out.


● THERE ARE DIFFERENT KINDS.

The range of climates across Australia likely led to the development of different types of dingo, which all reside in different areas of the continent. Desert dingoes are reddish, golden yellow, or sand colored with a compact body size. Alpine dingoes are the most rare in the wild and have a light cream coat. Finally, northern dingoes have a finer stature and lack the double coat the other two types have.


● SOME PEOPLE KEEP THEM AS PETS...

Some people might frown upon keeping a semi-wild animal as a pet, but others find dingo ownership to be very rewarding. The dogs are very loving and emotionally in tune. The attractive canines are lot like other domesticated dog breeds and can be walked on a leash and brought to the dog park.

That said, the dogs are very high-maintenance. Since dingoes are closely related to wolves, they have deeply ingrained pack values. They don't like being left alone and greetings are a necessary 15-minute procedure filled with patting, talking, and kissing. Failure to properly pay attention to the dogs' needs and pack mentality will leave the dogs disappointed and upset. Owners of dingoes will not be able to move frequently because of the dogs' dislike of change. Having a dingo as a pet is a full time responsibility, as dingoes don't handle rejection well and will likely not emotionally recover from being placed in a new home.


● BUT IT'S ILLEGAL TO KEEP THEM AS PETS IN SOME PLACES.

In places like New South Wales and Western Australia, it's legal to own a dingo without a permit. Victoria and the Northern Territory require a special permit, but in Tasmania, Queensland, and South Australia, the wild dogs are completely illegal to own.


● SOME DOGS HAVE DINGO IN THEIR ANCESTRY

Despite being somewhat wild, dingoes are still dogs and have mixed with other canine natives of Australia. You can find dingo blood in Australian Kelpies and Australian cattle dogs. Breeders realized that the sturdy wild dogs were perfect to help bulk up working dogs.


● DINGOES HAVE OWL-LIKE ABILITIES

Dingoes are well-equipped for the Australian Outback, and have an impressive sense of vision. They can even swivel their heads about 180 degrees. Comparatively, owls can turn their heads 270 degrees; humans can only turn theirs 45 to 70 degrees.


● THEIR BENDY WRISTS ARE HELPFUL.

Just like humans, dingoes have rotating wrists. This allows them to use their paws like hands to catch prey. It also helps them better climb trees and even open doors. Their flexible wrists let them climb and enter places other dogs can't go, making them a formidable pest for farmers trying to keep them away from their livestock.


● THEY DON'T REALLY BARK.

Unlike your standard dog, dingoes are much quieter. Instead of barking, the dogs have a yodel-like howl.


● THEY LIVE A LONG TIME IN CAPTIVITY.

In the wild, dingoes live somewhere between five to 10 years, but in captivity, they can live upwards of 18 to 20 years. This number is pretty impressive, as most domesticated dogs don't boast such a long lifespan. Comparatively, the English springer spaniel, which is roughly the same size as the dingo, only lives 10 to 14 years.

EUCALYPTUS

EUCALYPTUS

* Eucalyptus, large genus of mostly very large trees, of the myrtle family  (Myrtaceae), native to Australia, Tasmania, and nearby islands.

* More than 500 species have been described. In Australia the eucalypti are commonly known as gum trees or stringybark trees.

WHAT ARE THE HEALTH BENEFITS

* The oil that comes from the eucalyptus tree is used as an antiseptic, a perfume, as an ingredient in cosmetics, as a flavoring, in dental preparations, and in industrial solvents.

* Chinese, Indian Ayurvedic, Greek, and other European styles of medicine have incorporated it into the treatment of a range of conditions for thousands of years.

* There are over 400 different species of eucalyptus. Eucalyptus globulus, also known as Blue Gum, is the main source of eucalyptus oil used globally.

* Leaves are steam distilled to extract the oil, which is a colorless liquid with a strong, sweet, woody scent. It contains 1,8-cineole, also known as eucalyptol.

* The leaves also contain flavonoids and I tannins; flavonoids are plant-based antioxidants, and tannins may help to reduce inflammation.




Other conditions that eucalyptus may help with include:

* Arthritis - potentially due to its anti-inflammatory properties.

* A blocked nose.

* Wounds and burns
Ulcers.

* Cold sores - perhaps due to its anti-inflammatory properties.

* Bladder diseases.

* Diabetes - eucalyptus might help lower blood sugar.

* Fever.

* Flu.

BLOOD

BLOOD

* Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.

* Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.

* In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.



FUNCTIONS

*Supply of oxygen to tissues.

* Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.

* Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.

* Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies.

* Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding.

* Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage.

* Regulation of core body temperature.

* Hydraulic functions.

RODENTS

RODENTS

*Rodents are animals that gnaw with two continuously growing incisors. Forty percent of mammal species are rodents, and they inhabit every continent except Antarctica.

* The Order Rodentia is comprised of over 2,000 species, which are subdivided into many families.

* The Capromyidae, Castoridae, Cricetidae, Erethizontidae, Muridae, Sciuridae and Dipodidae are some of the most common families.

* The Family Muridae is the largest, containing nearly two-thirds of all rodent species. This family includes several subfamilies and includes sand rats, gerbils, crested rats and old world rats and mice.

* There are many different rodent types which have been identified. The different types can be distinguished by their differences in physical appearance as well as genetics. The types often are grouped together with similar types.

* Chipmunks, marmots, woodchucks, squirrels, prairie dogs and gophers belong to one rodent group.

* Another group includes common house mice, rats, gerbils, hamsters, lemmings and voles.

* Another well known group contains porcupines, capybaras, agouti, guinea pigs and chinchillas.

ANIMALS BFQ

ANIMALS - BFQ

Animal's bite force in newtons divided by its body mass in kilograms.


* Aardwolf  - 77

* European badger - 109

* Asiatic black bear - 44

* American black bear - 64

* Brown bear - 78

* Domestic cat - 58

* Cheetah - 119

* Cougar - 108

* Coyote - 88

* Dhole - 132

* Dingo - 125

* African wild dog -142

* Domestic dog - 117

* Singing dog - 100

* Arctic fox - 97

* Cape genet - 48

* Grey fox - 80

* Red fox - 92

*Grey wolf - 136

* Brown hyena - 113

* Spotted hyena - 117

* Jaguar - 137

* Jaguarundi - 75

* Leopard - 94

* Clouded leopard - 137

* Lion - 112

* Northern olingo - 162

* Sand cat - 136

* Sun bear - 160

* Least weasel - 164

* Spotted-tailed quoll - 179

* Tasmanian devil - 181

* Tiger - 127

PORCUPINE

PORCUPINE

Photo:- google

* Porcupines are rodents with a coat of sharp spines, or quills, that protect against predators.

* Porcupines occupy a short range of habitats in tropical and temperate parts of Asia, Southern Europe, Africa, and North and South America.

* They live in forests and deserts, and on rocky outcrops and hillsides. Some New World porcupines live in trees, but Old World porcupines stay on the rocks.

* Porcupines can be found on rocky areas up to 3,700 m (12,100 ft) high. They are generally nocturnal, but are occasionally active during daylight.

DIET

* The North American porcupine is a herbivore; it eats leaves, herbs, twigs, and green plants such as clover. In the winter, it may eat bark. It often climbs trees to find food.

* The African porcupine is not a climber and forages on the ground. It is mostly nocturnal, but will sometimes forage for food in the day, eating bark, roots, fruits and berries, as well as farm crops. Porcupines have become a pest in Kenya and are eaten as a delicacy.

DEFENCE

* Defence behaviour displays in a porcupine depend on sight, scent and sound. Often, displays are shown when a porcupine becomes agitated or annoyed.

* There are four main displays seen in a porcupine which are quill erection, teeth clattering, emitting of odour, and attack.

* These displays are ranked from least aggressive to most aggressive respectively. A porcupine's colouring aids in part of its defence as most of the predators are nocturnal and colour blind.

* A porcupine’s markings are black and white. The dark body and coarse hair of the porcupine are a dark brown/black and when quills are raised, present a white strip down its back mimicking the look of a skunk. This, along with the raising of the sharp quills, deters predators.

* Along with the raising of the quills, porcupines clatter their teeth causing warning noise to let predators know not to come closer.

* The incisors vibrate against each other, the strike zone shifts back and the cheek teeth clatter. This behaviour is often paired with body shivering which is used to further display the dangerous quills. The rattling of quills is aided by the hollow quills at the back end of the porcupine.

* The use of odor is when the sight and sound have failed. An invasive scent is produced from the skin above the tail in times of stress, and is often seen with quill erection.

* If the above processes fail, the porcupine will attack by running sideways or backwards into predators. A porcupines tail is also able to swing in the direction of prey. If contact is made, the quills could be impaled into the predator causing injury or death

THEN WHAT YOU MEAN BY QUILLS

* Porcupines' quills, or spines, take on various forms, depending on the species, but all are modified hairs coated with thick plates of keratin, and embedded in the skin  musculature.

* Quills are released by contact or may drop out when the porcupine shakes its body. New quills grow to replace lost ones.

* Porcupines were long believed to have the ability to project their quills to a considerable distance at an enemy.

WALRUS

WALRUS

* The walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) is a large flippered marine mammal with a discontinuous distribution about the North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere.


RANGE AND HABITAT

* The majority of the population of the Pacific walrus spends its summers north of the Bering Strait in the Chukchi Sea of the Arctic Ocean along the northern coast of eastern Siberia, around Wrangel Island, in the Beaufort Sea along the north shore of Alaska  south to Unimak Island, and in the waters between those locations. Smaller numbers of males summer in the Gulf of Anadyr on the southern coast of the Siberian Chukchi Peninsula, and in Bristol Bay off the southern coast of Alaska, west of the Alaska Peninsula. In the spring and fall, walruses congregate throughout the Bering Strait, reaching from the western coast of Alaska to the Gulf of Anadyr.

* They winter over in the Bering Sea  along the eastern coast of Siberia south to the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and along the southern coast of Alaska. A 28,000-year-old fossil walrus was dredged up from the bottom of San Francisco Bay, indicating Pacific walruses ranged that far south during the last ice age.

* The much smaller population of Atlantic walruses ranges from the Canadian Arctic, across Greenland, Svalbard, and the western part of Arctic Russia. There are eight hypothetical subpopulations of walruses, based largely on their geographical distribution and movements: five west of Greenland and three east of Greenland.

* The Atlantic walrus once ranged south to Sable Island, Nova Scotia, and as late as the eighteenth century was found in large numbers in the greater Gulf of St. Lawrence  region, sometimes in colonies of up to 7,000 to 8,000 individuals.

* The isolated population of Laptev walruses is confined year-round to the central and western regions of the Laptev Sea, the eastmost regions of the Kara Sea, and the westmost regions of the East Siberian Sea. The current population of these walruses has been estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000.

The limited diving abilities of walruses brings them to depend on shallow waters (and the nearby ice floes) for reaching their food supply.


DIET

* Walruses prefer shallow shelf regions and forage primarily on the sea floor, often from sea ice platforms.

* They are not particularly deep divers compared to other pinnipeds; their deepest recorded dives are around 80 m (260 ft). They can remain submerged for as long as half an hour.

* The walrus has a diverse and opportunistic diet, feeding on more than 60 genera of marine organisms, including shrimp, crabs, tube worms, soft corals, tunicates, sea cucumbers, various mollusks, and even parts of other pinnipeds.

* However, it prefers benthic bivalve mollusks, especially clams, for which it forages by grazing along the sea bottom, searching and identifying prey with its sensitive vibrissae and clearing the murky bottoms with jets of water and active flipper movements.

* The walrus sucks the meat out by sealing its powerful lips to the organism and withdrawing its piston-like tongue rapidly into its mouth, creating a vacuum. The walrus palate is uniquely vaulted, enabling effective suction.


PREDATOR

* Due to its great size and tusks, the walrus has only two natural predators: the killer whale and the polar bear.

* Walruses have been known to fatally injure polar bears in battles if the latter follows the other into the water where the bear is at a disadvantage Polar bear–walrus battles are often extremely protracted and exhausting, and bears have been known to forgo the attack after injuring a walrus.

* Orcas regularly attack walrus, although walruses are believed to have successfully defended themselves via counterattack against the larger cetacean. However, orcas have been observed successfully attacking walruses with few or no injuries.

SARDINE

SARDINE

* Sardines are small epipelagic fish that sometimes migrate along the coast in large schools.

* They are an important forage fish for larger forms of marine life.

* Sardines are small, silvery, elongated fishes with a single short dorsal fin, no lateral line, and no scales on the head.

* They range in length from about 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 inches) and live in dense schools, migrating along the coast and feeding on plankton, of which they consume vast quantities.

* They spawn mainly in spring, with the eggs and, a few days later, the larvae drifting passively until they metamorphose into free-swimming fish.

* Sardines of any species are commercially fished for a variety of uses: for bait; for fresh fish markets; for drying, salting, or smoking; and for reduction into fish meal or oil. 

PRAWN

PRAWN

* Prawn is a common name for small aquatic crustaceans with an exoskeleton and ten legs, some of which can be eaten.

LOBSTER

LOBSTER

* Lobsters have long bodies with muscular tails, and live in crevices or burrows on the sea floor.

* Three of their five pairs of legs have claws, including the first pair, which are usually much larger than the others.

* Highly prized as seafood, lobsters are economically important, and are often one of the most profitable commodities in coastal areas they populate.

* Lobsters are found in all oceans. They live on rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms from the shoreline to beyond the edge of the continental shelf.

*They generally live singly in crevices or in burrows under rocks.

* Lobsters are omnivores and typically eat live prey such as fish, mollusks, other crustaceans, worms, and some plant life.

* They scavenge if necessary, and are known to resort to cannibalism in captivity. However, when lobster skin is found in lobster stomachs, this is not necessarily evidence of cannibalism – lobsters eat their shed skin after moulting.

MUSSEL

MUSSEL

* Mussel is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and freshwater  habitats. 

* These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other edible clams, which are often more or less rounded or oval.

FEEDINGS

* Both marine and freshwater mussels are filter feeders; they feed on plankton and other microscopic sea creatures which are free-floating in seawater. 

* A mussel draws water in through its incurrent siphon. The water is then brought into the branchial chamber by the actions of the cilia located on the gills for ciliary-mucus feeding.

* The wastewater exits through the excurrent siphon. The labial palps finally funnel the food into the mouth, where digestion begins.

* Marine mussels are usually found clumping  together on wave-washed rocks, each attached to the rock by its byssus.

* The clumping habit helps hold the mussels firm against the force of the waves. At low tide mussels in the middle of a clump will undergo less water loss because of water capture by the other mussels.

REPRODUCTION

* Both marine and freshwater mussels are gonochoristic, with separate male and female individuals.

* In marine mussels, fertilization occurs outside the body, with a larval stage that drifts for three weeks to six months, before settling on a hard surface as a young mussel.

* There, it is capable of moving slowly by means of attaching and detaching byssal threads to attain a better life position.

* Freshwater mussels reproduce sexually. Sperm is released by the male directly into the water and enters the female via the incurrent siphon. After fertilization, the eggs develop into a larval stage called a glochidium (plural glochidia), which temporarily parasitizes fish, attaching themselves to the fish's fins or gills. Prior to their release, the glochidia grow in the gills of the female mussel where they are constantly flushed with oxygen-rich water. In some species, release occurs when a fish attempts to attack the mussel's minnow or other mantle flaps shaped like prey; an example of aggressive mimicry.

* Glochidia are generally species-specific, and will only live if they find the correct fish host. Once the larval mussels attach to the fish, the fish body reacts to cover them with cells forming a cyst, where the glochidia remain for two to five weeks (depending on temperature). They grow, break free from the host, and drop to the bottom of the water to begin an independent life.

PREDATORS

*Marine mussels are eaten by humans, starfish, seabirds, and by numerous species of predatory marine gastropods in the family Muricidae, such as the dog whelk, Nucella lapillus. Freshwater mussels are eaten by otters, raccoons, ducks, baboons,  and geese, although the main cause of mortality is starfish.

SNAKES

SNAKES

(All photos colleceted from google)

* Snakes are elongated, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws.


RANGE

* Snakes are found throughout the world except Antarctica, Iceland, Ireland, Greenland and New Zealand.

* Most snakes are found in tropical regions. Snakes are found in many habitats including in the water, forests, deserts and prairies.


BEHAVIOR

* Often observed flicking its tongue, snakes use their forked tongue to smell the air.

* Snakes are ectotherms, meaning they must regulate their body temperature externally by sunning themselves or retreating to cool, shaded areas.

* Snakes hibernate during the winter. Snakes must shed their skin three to six times per year.


REPRODUCTION

* Most snake species lay eggs, but some species give birth to live young. Snakes lay their eggs in a warm location.

* With the exception of some python species, eggs and young are not cared for by the male or female.


DIET

* Snakes consume a variety of items including termites, rodents, birds, frogs, small deer and other reptiles.

* Snakes eat their prey whole and are able to consume prey three times larger than the diameter of their head because their lower jaw can separate from the upper jaw. To keep prey from escaping, snakes have rear-facing teeth that hold their prey in their mouths.

* Venomous snakes inject their prey with venom, while constrictors squeeze their prey. They do not need to hunt everyday. Anacondas and pythons can survive for up to a year without food after feeding. Snakes hunt mostly at night.



MOST POPULAR SNAKE

● King Cobra

The longest venomous snake in the world is the King Cobra. This is a snake that has many people worried because of the way they look and the size of them.

● American Copperhead

The American Copperhead is one of the snakes in the world that creates venom. They are often called just the Copperhead for short. In some locations they are referred to as the Moccasin Snake.

● Black Mamba

The Black Mamba is considered to be the longest of all snakes found around Africa. It is also considered to be one of the deadliest.

● Corn Snake

The Corn Snake is also called the Red Rat Snake. They are a constrictor type of snake which means that they wrap their bodies around what they want to eat or they think it is threat.

● Rattlesnake

The Rattlesnake is one of the most common ones you will find out there. They do have a type of venom in them but it usually isn’t very powerful. There are 30 species though and many subspecies so what they will offer depends on what you come across.

● Boa Constrictor

The Boa Constrictor is a very large snake with a very thick body. However, it isn’t one of the biggest as the Python species all are larger that this is.

● Eastern Coral Snake

The Eastern Coral Snake is also called the American Cobra. It is very dangerous snake due to the potency of the venom that it releases.

● Black Rat Snake

The adults can be up to 8 feet in length. This makes them the biggest of all snakes found in Canada. Like other species of snakes the colors of this one work to allow it to blend in well with the surroundings.

● Burmese Python

One of the larger species of snakes in the world is the Burmese Python. It is ranked as the 6 largest of all snakes in the world.

● Ball Python or Royal Python

The Ball Python or Royal Python is one that many people are fascinated by. This is a non venomous type of snake. It is quite timid in comparison to many other types of Pythons.

● Reticulated Python

The Reticulated Python is large and very interesting to gaze at. They don’t have any venom and they are very seldom known to bite. However, they will wrap around a person though and suffocate them.

● Garter Snake

The Garter Snake is one of the most well known. They often have very bright colors that make them attractive.

● Green Anaconda

The Green Anaconda is the one of all species with the widest mass. This is a non venomous snake that only looks like it would be extremely dangerous.

● Water Moccasin Snake

The Water Moccasin Snake is a type of pit viper. They can give a bite that is very painful and it could be deadly.

● Green Tree Python

The Green Tree Python lives in areas where most people will never get a chance to see one up close. They are very colorful though and that is what gains them lots of attention.

ANT

ANT

* Ants are insects, and like all insects, have a body with three main parts - the head, the thorax (middle section), and the abdomen.

* The abdomen of an ant is narrow where it joins onto the thorax. Insects have six legs that are attached to the thorax, three to each side.

* The head is made up of the jaws called mandibles, the eyes, and the antennae. The eyes of ants are made up of many lenses and are called compound eyes. Compound eyes make it possible for ants to see movement very well.

ANT COLONIES

* Ants live in large colonies or groups. Their home is a nest. There may be up to a million ants in a large nest. In each colony there are three types of ants: the queen, the female workers, and males.

* The only job of male ants is to mate with a queen ants so that she will be able to lay eggs, which is her only task. Male ants don't live very long.

* The queen grows to be an adult, mates with a male, then spends the rest of her life laying eggs. In a colony there may be only one queen or there may be many queens, depending on the species of ant.

* Worker ants do all the work in the nest. They build it and clean it, gather food, look after the queen, the eggs, and the young ants. Worker ants also defend the nest.

NEST

* Some build simple mounds of dirt or sand. Others use small sticks mixed with dirt and sand to make stronger, waterproof mounds.

* Inside the nest there are many chambers (or rooms). The chambers are connected to each other by tunnels. Chambers are used for different things, for example as nurseries for eggs and young ants, for storing food, as resting places for the worker ants and a there's a special chamber just for the queen.

* Ants communicate (talk to each other) by touching each other with their antennae. They also use chemicals called pheromones (say feh-ruh-moans) to leave a trail of scent for other ants to follow.

LIFE CYCLE

* The larva hatches from the egg and is cared for by the worker ants, who move the larvae to different chambers if the nest gets too hot, or floods. During the pupa stage the larva is in a sleep-like state as it changes into an adult ant.

WORM

WORM

* Worms are many different distantly related animals that typically have a long cylindrical tube-like body and no limbs.

*  Worms vary in size from microscopic to over 1 metre (3.3 ft) in length for marine polychaete worms (bristle worms), 6.7 metres (22 ft) for the African giant earthworm, Microchaetus rappi, and 58 metres (190 ft) for the marine nemertean worm (bootlace worm), Lineus longissimus.

* Various types of worm occupy a small variety of parasitic niches, living inside the bodies of other animals. Free-living worm species do not live on land, but instead, live in marine or freshwater environments, or underground by burrowing. 

CRAB

CRAB

* They live in all the world's oceans, in fresh water, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton and have a single pair of claws.

* Many other animals with similar names – such as hermit crabs, king crabs, porcelain crabs, horseshoe crabs, and crab lice – are not true crabs.

* Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a single pair of chelae (claws).

* Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, while many crabs live in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions.

* Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimetres wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span of up to 4 metres (13 ft).

*About 850 species of crab are freshwater, terrestrial or semi-terrestrial species; they are found throughout the world's tropical and semi-tropical regions.

* They were previously thought to be a monophyletic group, but are now believed to represent at least two distinct lineages, one in the Old World and one in the New World.



BEHAVIOUR

*Carpilius convexus consuming Heterocentrotus trigonarius in Hawaii
Crabs typically walk sideways (a behaviour which gives us the word crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. However, some crabs walk forwards or backwards, including raninids, Libinia emarginata  and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, notably the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae  especially so as their last pair of walking legs is flattened into swimming paddles.

*Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns. They can communicate by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive towards one another, and males often fight to gain access to females.

* On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.

* Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species.

* For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. However, some species are more specialised in their diets. Some eat plankton, some eat primarily shellfish like clams, and some even catch fish.

* Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.

CANINES FAMILY

CANINES FAMILY




Dogs belong to the taxonomic family Canidae (canines) which is divided into two tribes: those related to wolves (Canini) and those related to foxes (Vulpini). A couple of canine species lay outside these two tribes, but hyenas are not canines.


TYPES
(All photos collected from google)


● GRAY WOLF

There are 39 subspecies, one of them being all domestic dog breeds. Thirty-seven of these subspecies are wolves, the largest and most common being the Eurasian gray wolf (Canis lupus lupus), the common ancestor of domestic dog breeds.

The gray wolf is found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and comes in black, brown, grey, and white, or a combination of these colors. It is not considered to be a threatened species, but is protected in some areas.


● ARABIAN WOLF

Quite a few wolf subspecies look like the common gray wolf, but a few are strikingly different. The Arabian wolf (Canis lupus arabs) evolved to live in the deserts of the Middle East, which is why its hair is so short. The fur varies over time according to the season and local temperatures.


● ARCTIC WOLF

The Arctic wolf (Canis lupus arctos) is pretty much just a wolf that lives in the Arctic. The subspecies has adapted to its habitat by growing thick white fur that grows longer between the toes to protect its footpads and shorter ears and snout to conserve heat.


● COYOTE

Coyotes (Canis latrans) are a species that has evolved as a canine predator but subsists alongside civilization better than most wolves. With less fear of humans, they've learned to help themselves to livestock, or will scavenge for garbage if no easy prey is available.


● JACKAL

There are three Canis species classified as jackals, or Old World coyotes. Shown here is a black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) which is native to several areas of Africa. The side-striped jackal (Canis adustus) and the golden jackal (Canis aureus) are the other two species. Jackals are predators, but are also scavengers like the coyote, and while they prefer fresh meat, will eat anything available.


●  DINGO

The subspecies of Canis lupus that is neither domestic nor a wolf is Canis lupus dingo. However, there is some argument that dingos are indistinguishable from domestic dogs except for the fact that they are not domestic. The subspecies covers the Australian dingo plus some feral dogs of Asia such as the New Guinea Singing Dog. The Australian dingo is descended from domestic dogs that were brought to the island thousands of years ago which became feral over many generations. The dingos of Australia still interbreed with more recent domestic dogs, and so the subspecies is considered "vulnerable."


● DHOLE

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) of Asia is a dog of the Caninae family and Canini  tribe, but has its own genus. You would recognize this creature as a dog, but it has more teats and fewer teeth than Canis, and whistles more than it barks or howls. They live in the forests and steppes of Russia, the Himalayas, and even as far south as Java. The biggest number of these endangered dogs live in India.


● RED FOX

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) of Asia is a dog of the Caninae family and Canini  tribe, but has its own genus. You would recognize this creature as a dog, but it has more teats and fewer teeth than Canis, and whistles more than it barks or howls. They live in the forests and steppes of Russia, the Himalayas, and even as far south as Java. The biggest number of these endangered dogs live in India.

● KIT FOX

The kit fox (Vulpes macrotis) is native to the deserts of the western United States and Mexico. Its skinny body and large ears are adaptive to desert life, like the coyotes it somewhat resembles. There are eight subspecies of kit fox, mostly named after their habitats, like the San Joaquin Kit Fox.

●ARCTIC FOX

The Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) is sometimes classified as Alopex lagopus, which is an older classification that taxonomists still quarrel about. The lagopus sounds like a relation to rabbits, but in this case it refers to the fur that grows between the fox's toes to help protect them from cold surfaces. The Arctic fox could be mistaken for other fox species when seen in summer.


● FENNEC FOX

The fennec fox (Vulpes zerda) takes the desert adaptation of large ears used to dissipate heat to the max. The small nocturnal fox lives in the upper Sahara where heat dissipation is of the utmost importance. At just a couple of pounds and 9 to 16 inches long, the fennec fox is the world's smallest canid species (toy dog breeds are not representative of the species). Fennec foxes are sometimes kept as pets.


● ISLAND FOX or GRAY FOX

Urocyon is a genus of foxes that climb trees. The island fox (Urocyon littoralis), also called the Channel Island fox, is barely bigger than a fennec fox. The only other existing Urocyon species is the slightly bigger gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus).


● RACCOON DOG

The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is of the Canidae family, but is neither a wolf nor a fox. It is not at all related to a raccoon, but may be mistaken for one. A distant cousin of your dog, the raccoon dog is still a closer relation than a hyena. Raccoon dogs are native to eastern Asia and are farmed for their fur.


● BAT - EARED FOX

The bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) is another member of the Canidae  family that is neither a wolf nor fox (despite the name). It is the only species of the genus Otocyon, and lives in the African savannah, eating insects -mostly termites. Its name comes from its distinctive big black ears.

NIPAH VIRUS INFECTION (NiV)

NIPAH


* Nipah virus infection (NiV) is a viral infection  caused by the Nipah virus.

* Symptoms from infection vary from none to fever, cough, headache, shortness of breath, and confusion. This may worsen into a coma  over a day or two.

* Complications can include inflammation of the brain.

* The Nipah virus is a type of RNA virus in the genus Henipavirus.

* It can both spread between people and from other animals to people.

* Spread typically requires direct contact with an infected source.

* The virus normally circulates among specific types of fruit bats.

* Diagnosis is based on symptoms and confirmed by laboratory testing.

* Management involves supportive care. As of 2018 there is no vaccine or specific treatment.

* Prevention is by avoiding exposure to bats and sick pigs and not drinking raw date palm sap.

* As of May 2018 about 700 human cases of Nipah virus are estimated to have occurred and 50 to 75 percent of those who were infected died.

* In May 2018, an outbreak of the disease resulted in at least 18 deaths in the Indian state of Kerala.

* The disease was first identified in 1998 during an outbreak in Malaysia while the virus was isolated in 1999. It is named after a village in Malaysia, Sungai Nipah.

* Pigs may also be infected and millions were killed in 1999 to stop the spread of disease.


DIAGNOSIS

* Laboratory diagnosis of Nipah virus infection is made using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from throat swabs, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and blood analysis during acute and convalescent stages of the disease.

* IgG and IgM antibody detection can be done after recovery to confirm Nipah virus infection. Immunohistochemistry on tissues collected during autopsy also confirms the disease.

*  Viral RNA can be isolated from the saliva of infected persons.



PREVENTION

* Prevention of Nipah virus infection is important since there is no effective treatment for the disease.

*The infection can be prevented by avoiding exposure to bats in endemic areas and sick pigs.

* Drinking of raw palm sap (palm toddy) contaminated by bat excrete, eating of fruits partially consumed by bats and using water from wells infested by bats should be avoided. Bats are known to drink toddy that is collected in open containers, and occasionally urinate in it, which makes it contaminated with the virus.

* Surveillance and awareness are important for preventing future outbreaks.

* The association of this disease within reproductive cycle of bats is not well studied. Standard infection control practices should be enforced to prevent nosocomial infections.

* A subunit vaccine using the Hendra G protein was found to produce cross-protective antibodies against henipavirus and nipavirus has been used in monkeys to protect against Hendra virus, although its potential for use in humans has not been studied.



TREATMENT

* Currently there is no effective treatment for Nipah virus infection.

* The treatment is limited to supportive care. It is important to practice standard infection control practices and proper barrier nursing techniques to avoid the transmission of the infection from person to person.

* All suspected cases of Nipah virus infection should be isolated and given intensive supportive care.

* Ribavirin has been shown effective in in vitro tests, but has not yet been proven effective in humans. Passive immunization using a human monoclonal antibody that targets the Nipah G glycoprotein has been evaluated in the ferret model as post-exposure prophylaxis.

* The anti-malarial drug chloroquine was shown to block the critical functions needed for maturation of Nipah virus, although no clinical benefit has yet been observed.  m102.4, a human monoclonal antibody, has been used in people on a compassionate use basis in Australia and is presently in pre-clinical development.



OUTBREAK

* Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported in Malaysia, Singapore, Bangladesh and India.

* The highest mortality due to Nipah virus infection has occurred in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, the outbreaks are typically seen in winter season.

* Nipah virus first appeared in Malaysia in 1998 in peninsular Malaysia in pigs and pig farmers. By mid-1999, more than 265 human cases of encephalitis, including 105 deaths, had been reported in Malaysia, and 11 cases of either encephalitis or respiratory illness with one fatality were reported in Singapore.

* In 2001, Nipah virus was reported from Meherpur District, Bangladesh and Siliguri, India.

* The outbreak again appeared in 2003, 2004 and 2005 in Naogaon District, Manikganj District, Rajbari District, Faridpur District and Tangail District. In Bangladesh, there were also outbreaks in subsequent years.

* In May 2018, an outbreak was reported in the Kozhikode district of Kerala, India.

*  Eighteen deaths have been recorded, including one healthcare worker.

* Those who have died are mainly from the districts of Kozhikode and Malappuram, including a 31-year-old nurse, who was treating patients infected with the virus. As of 31 May 2018, about 16 people are being quarantined because they had contact with the sick.

* This incident has caused panic throughout the state. Blood samples have been sent for testing.

* India is seeking help from Australia by importing monoclonal antibodies to a Nipah virus antigen.

* However, the treatment is experimental and has not yet been tested on humans. India is also importing ribavirin tablets from Malaysia.